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References

Water Conservation

1. Water consumption

Introduction

Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.19. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

1.1
Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.118. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

1.2
Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.133. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

1.3
Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.49. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

1.4
Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.47. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

1.5
The 2023/24 data were provided by the research team working on a project entitled. “Harnessing the Power of IoT Technologies, Data Analytics and Advanced Household Profiling Techniques to Sustain Water-conscious Behaviours and to Inform Water-sector Infrastructure Planning”. The research project (S2021.A8.034.21S) is funded by the HKSAR Government’s Strategic Public Policy Research Funding Scheme.

1.6
The 2023/24 data were provided by the research team working on a project entitled. “Harnessing the Power of IoT Technologies, Data Analytics and Advanced Household Profiling Techniques to Sustain Water-conscious Behaviours and to Inform Water-sector Infrastructure Planning”. The research project (S2021.A8.034.21S) is funded by the HKSAR Government’s Strategic Public Policy Research Funding Scheme.

1.7
Hong Kong Observatory, 2025. Monthly Weather Summary. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

2. Water demand management: Current situation

Water demand management

2.3
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Annual Quantity of Fresh Water Supply. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Chen, Y. D., 2001. Sustainable development and management of water resources for urban water supply in Hong Kong, Water International, 26(1), p.124. DOI: 10.1080/02508060108686891

2.4
Water Supplies Department, 2004-2025. Annual Report 2003/04-2023/24, Annual Quantity of Fresh Water Supply. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

2.5
US Environmental Protection Agency, 2016. Best Practices to Consider When Evaluating Water Conservation and Efficiency as an Alternative for Water Supply Expansion. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

Water conservation target

2.6
Office of the Chief Executive, HKSAR Government, 2017. The Chief Executive’s 2017 Policy Address, Policy Agenda, p.117. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

Water Supplies Department, 2018. Annual Report 2016/17, p.93. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

2.7
Office of the Chief Executive, HKSAR Government, 2017. The Chief Executive’s 2017 Policy Address, Policy Agenda, p.117. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

Water Supplies Department, 2018. Annual Report 2016/17, p.93. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

Water Supplies Department, 2022. Annual Report 2020/21, p.104. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.133. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Water loss control

2.11
Audit Commission, 2015. Report No. 64 of the Director of Audit, Chapter 4, para. 1.3. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

2.12
Water Supplies Department, 1998-2025. Annual Report 1997/98-2023/24, Waterworks – operating accounts, Review of the year. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Water Supplies Department, 1998-2025. Annual Report 1997/98-2023/24, Annual Quantity of Fresh Water Supply. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

2.13
Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.124. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

3. Water demand management: An International perspective

Water consumption pattern 

3.1
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Annual Quantity of Fresh Water Supply. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Chen, Y. D., 2001. Sustainable development and management of water resources for urban water supply in Hong Kong, Water International, 26(1), p.124. DOI: 10.1080/02508060108686891

Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Annual Salt Water Consumption and Population Served with Salt Water. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Ho, P.Y., 2009. Water for a Barren Rock. Hong Kong: The Commercial Press (H.K) Ltd., p 141.

The seawater consumption data for 1961 to 1970 were conservative estimates made by the authors.

3.3
For Barcelona:
(Only available in Catalan) Ajuntament de Barcelona, 2024. Anuari Estadístic de la Ciutat de Barcelona 2023, p.288. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Barcelona City Council, 2025. Barcelona in Figures 2024, p.3. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For Beijing:
(Only available in Chinese) 北京市水務局(2024)。《北京市水務統計年鑒 2023》,1頁。取自: 連結 [查詢日期:2025年5月]

(Only available in Chinese) 北京市統計局國家統計局北京調查總隊(2024)。〈北京市2023年國民經濟和社會發展統計公報〉,表2 2023年末常住人口及構成。取自:連結 [查詢日期:2025年5月]

For Hong Kong:
Water Supplies Department, 2025. Annual Report 2023/24, p.133. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Census and Statistics Department, 2025. Table 110-01001 : Population by Sex and Age Group, Statistics. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For Macao:
Macao Water, 2025. Water Supply Statistics. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Statistics and Census Service, 2025. Demographic Statistics, 4th Quarter 2023. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For New York:
Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), 2025. Water Consumption in the City of New York, Data. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), 2025. Water Consumption in the City of New York, Data. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For Singapore:
Department of Statistics Singapore, 2024. Water Sales. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Singapore Department of Statistics, 2025. Population. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For Sydney:
Sydney Water, 2024. Water Conservation Report 2023-2024, p.12. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2025. Regional population, Population change by capital city. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For Taipei:
Taipei Water Department, 2025. Taipei Water Department Statistical Yearbook 2023, p.108. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

Dept. of Household Registration, Ministry of the Interior, n.d.. Statistics, End of Year, Table 1. Population by Sex and 5 Year Age Group for Counties and Cities. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For Tokyo:
(Only available in Japanese) Bureau of Waterworks Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 2025. 東京の水道の概要. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

(Only available in Japanese) Bureau of Waterworks Tokyo Metropolitan Government, 2025. 東京の水道の概要. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

3.4
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2023. Annual Report 1998/99-2021/22, Annual Quantity of Fresh Water Supply. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

Chen, Y. D., 2001. Sustainable development and management of water resources for urban water supply in Hong Kong, Water International, 26(1), p.124. DOI: 10.1080/02508060108686891

Water Supplies Department, 1999-2023. Annual Report 1998/99-2021/22, Annual Salt Water Consumption and Population Served with Salt Water. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

Ho, P.Y., 2009. Water for a Barren Rock. Hong Kong: The Commercial Press (H.K) Ltd., p 141.
The seawater consumption data for 1961 to 1970 were conservative estimates made by the authors.
For reference materials used to compile the data of other cities, please contact the Water Centre.

3.5
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Per Capita Domestic Fresh Water Consumption. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

For reference materials used to compile the data of other cities, please contact the Water Centre.

Water tariff

3.6
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Finance and Water Charges. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

3.7
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Finance and Water Charges. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

3.8
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Finance and Water Charges. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

3.9
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Finance and Water Charges. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]

3.10
International Water Association, 2022. Total Charges for Cities in 2021 For A Consumption Of 100 m³. Available at: link [Accessed Feb 2024]

3.11
Water Supplies Department, 1999-2025. Annual Report 1998/99-2023/24, Finance and Water Charges. Available at: link [Accessed May 2025]